Chondroitin is a major component of cartilage. Supplemental chondroitin sulfate is derived from natural animal sources including shark and cow cartilage. Chondroitin may play a positive role osteoarthritis, because it may preserve joint cartilage. Chondroitin is frequently used in combination with glucosamine. Overall, evidence suggests that some people with osteoarthritis of the knee benefit from taking chondroitin.

Studies have shown 1,200 mg of chondroitin sulfate in combination with 1,500 mg of glucosamine hydrochloride per day to be effective.

Boron is a trace mineral which is used as a dietary supplement for promoting bone and joint health, building muscles and increasing testosterone levels, and enhancing cognitive function and fine motor skills. Boron seems to be important in mineral metabolism and cell membrane function. Research suggests that supplemental boron may increase serum estrogen levels in postmenopausal women.

Studies have shown that taking up to 3 mg of boron daily via supplements is safe.

Research has shown that calcium can play a positive role in osteoporosis, hypoparathyroidism, osteomalacia, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), leg cramps associated with pregnancy, colorectal cancer, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. Calcium can also be used as an antacid. It is estimated that 30 years of continuous calcium supplementation among post-menopausal women might result in a 10% improvement in bone mineral density, and a 50% overall reduction in fracture rates, as compared with women who do not take calcium supplements.

Studies have demonstrated the safety of supplementing with up to 2000 mg of calcium daily.

Black cohosh is used as a medicinal herb to reduce symptoms of menopause, including hot flashes. There is evidence to suggest that black cohosh may be comparable to a low-dose estrogen skin patch for relieving hot flashes. Black cohosh may have some estrogen-like effects, but black cohosh does not appear to affect endometrial tissue or hormone levels. Black cohosh may work by affecting the pituitary gland.

Studies have shown 80-250 mg of black cohosh per day to be effective.

Biotin is a B vitamin involved in the production of fats and proteins. Biotin can be manufactured in the intestines by bacteria. People deficient in biotin may experience symptoms including loss of appetite, nausea, dry skin with scaling, and seborrhea (a chronic inflammatory skin condition with flaking, especially around the nose, eyebrows and hairline). Cradle cap in infants may indicate a biotin deficiency.

Studies have shown 30-300 mcg of biotin per day to be effective.

Phase 2®, or phaseolamin, or is a non-stimulant, natural substance derived from white kidney beans. Phase 2® may act as a "carb blocker" in the body by interfering with the digestive enzymes that break down carbohydrates for absorption. Phase 2® also contains fiber, which can bind with fats to reduce fat absorption.

Studies have shown 1,500 mg of Phase 2® per day to be effective.

Alpha lipoic acid occurs naturally in the body. Alpha lipoic acid was originally thought to be a vitamin, but alpha lipoic acid was reclassified upon the discovery that it is created in the bodies of humans and animals. Alpha lipoic acid is involved in the production of energy from carbohydrates. Alpha lipoic acid may improve insulin resistance and glucose use. Research shows that alpha lipoic acid may also be also useful in the treatment of nerve and eye damage. Alpha lipoic acid has been used for dementia, chronic fatigue syndrome, HIV/AIDS, cancer, liver disease, cardiovascular disease, and Lyme disease. Alpha lipoic acid may also enhance the antioxidant action of vitamin E, vitamin C, and glutathione, and prevent oxidative damage to nerves and the brain.

Studies have shown 50-100 mg of alpha lipoic acid per day to be effective.

Acetyl-L-carnitine occurs naturally in the body and is also found in animal products, primarily red meat. Acetyl-L-carnitine helps the body burn fat for energy. Acetyl-L-carnitine also improves the body’s production of an important neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, and may reduce oxidative damage in the brain. Several studies have shown that there may be some positive effects of acetyl-L-carnitine supplementation in Alzheimer's patients. Other research suggests that acetyl-L-carnitine may help slow age-related mental decline, protect the brain after a stroke, and improve blood flow to the brain. Acetyl-L-carnitine might also be effective in the treatment of diabetic and chemotherapy-induced neuropathy and in the regeneration of nerves in the arms and legs.

A preventive, long-term usage dose of acetyl-L-carnitine is 100-400 mg.

Acai berry extract is derived from the deep purple, grape-sized fruit of the acai palm which grows in South America. The acai berry has been used traditionally for arthritis and heart disease, and for improving general health. The pulp of the acai berry is rich in antioxidants that may protect cells from damage associated with aging, disease, and environmental toxins. Research has shown that acai berries have more antioxidant power than cranberries, raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, or blueberries.

Studies have shown 400-800 mg per day of acai berry extract to be effective.

DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) is the major fatty acid in fish oil that helps protect brains against dementia and Alzheimer's disease. DHA is used during the first four months of life to enhance mental development. Evidence shows DHA is also helpful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, macular degeneration, and depression. In combination with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), DHA is also used for a variety of heart conditions, asthma, cancer, hay fever, lung diseases, and lupus. EPA and DHA are also used in combination for migraine headaches, skin problems, Raynaud's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, bipolar disorder, and ulcerative colitis.

DHA is usually administered with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in fish oil. A wide range of dosages has been used. A typical dose is 100-300 mg of DHA.

Curcumin is concentrated in the yellow curry spice, turmeric. As an extract in supplements, curcumin is a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer agent. In clinical research, curcumin shows promise as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease, and may help explain why the curry-eating population of India has an extremely low rate of Alzheimer's.

Research suggests that 10-200 mg of curcumin per day is effective.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a potent antioxidant and energy booster within all cells, particularly in the heart and brain. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) helps cells make ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the fuel for all cell activity and thus, all life. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) levels decline dramatically with age, and coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is also depleted by the use of cholesterol-lowering statin drugs. Low levels of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) are associated with muscle pain and weakness, and a higher risk of congestive heart failure, heart attacks, chest pain, chronic inflammation and high blood pressure.

Research suggests that 10-400 mg of CoQ10 is effective.

Copper is an essential trace mineral, involved in the body’s production of proteins that help maintain structure and elasticity in the skin and blood vessels. Copper is also involved in the production of red blood cells, antioxidants, energy, and neurotransmitters. Supplemental copper is used primarily for the prevention of heart disease and the treatment of osteoarthritis. There is evidence that taking copper in combination with zinc, manganese, and calcium might slow bone loss in postmenopausal women. Copper deficiencies have been linked with aneurysm (the bulging or rupture of blood vessels). Copper deficiencies are rare, but have been found in people taking high doses of zinc. Too much copper can be toxic.

The estimated safe and adequate intake of copper for adults is 1.5-3 mg.

Chromium is an essential trace mineral involved in blood sugar metabolism. Chromium may improve blood sugar control in types 1 and 2 diabetes, pre-diabetes, steroid-induced high blood sugar, and reactive hypoglycemia. Some evidence also suggests that chromium might decrease weight gain and fat accumulation, especially in people with type 2 diabetes.

Research suggests all adults should take a 200 mcg of chromium per day.

Cinnamon is a spice that may improve insulin sensitivity by making insulin work better and by mimicking insulin activity. Studies show that supplemental cinnamon may help to reduce fasting blood sugar levels in type 2 diabetes. Research also suggests that daily use of a water-soluble extract of cinnamon, Cinnulin, may improve body composition by increasing muscle and reducing fat, while also improving blood sugar levels and reducing insulin resistance.

Research suggests that 250 mg of Cinnulin per day is effective.

EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) is a major component of fish oil used to reduce inflammation in the body. EPA is used in combination with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for a variety of heart conditions, Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, asthma, cancer, hay fever, lung diseases, and lupus. EPA and DHA are also used in combination for migraine headaches, skin problems, Raynaud's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, bipolar disorder, and ulcerative colitis. Research shows that increased consumption of EPA-containing fish oil may slightly decrease the risk of death in patients with coronary artery disease, reduce risk for dementia, improve symptoms of recurrent depression, help psoriasis, and lead to a modest improvement in aggressive behavior in people with personality disorders.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is usually administered with DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) as fish oil. A wide range of doses has been used. A typical dose is 1200-500 mg.

Flaxseed contains soluble fiber, which helps lower cholesterol and prevent constipation. Flaxseed contains essential fatty acids that can be converted to heart-healthy, anti-inflammatory omega-3 fats in the body, and lignans, compounds with weak estrogen-like properties. Research shows flaxseed can lower total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, reduce symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and night sweats, and relieve constipation. Evidence also suggests flaxseed can reduce the risk for hormone-related breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men, and improve kidney function in people with lupus.

Dosages of 30-50 grams a day have been found effective for improving symptoms of menopause, reducing high cholesterol, and improving lupus-related kidney problems.

Folate, or folic acid, is a B vitamin found in foliage plants. Folic acid functions in many body processes, including cell division, energy production, nervous system growth and maintenance, production of neurotransmitters and red blood cells. Folic acid is critically important in suppressing homocysteine, a blood protein linked to heart disease, strokes and dementia. Folic acid also reduces the risk of birth defects and certain cancers. Research suggests getting adequate folic acid can slow age-relate declines in cognitive function.

800 mcg of folic acid daily provides optimal homocysteine reduction.

The leaves of the ginkgo tree have a long history of use in the Orient to prevent memory loss and age-related mental decline. Ginkgo biloba is a strong antioxidant, shown to retard nerve cell degeneration, protect brain cells from neurotoxins, reduce inflammation and improve blood flow. In studies, ginkgo has been shown to improve memory and mood, with few side effects. Ginkgo seems to help both older and younger people, and may also help to relieve depression and stress.

Several studies have shown 120 mg daily to be an optimal dose of ginkgo biloba.

Glucosamine hydrochloride is a combination of an amino acid and sugar. Glucosamine is found in cartilage, the smooth connective tissue in joints. Glucosamine hydrochloride is usually derived from the shells of shrimp, lobsters and crabs - however a brand called ReganaSure is shellfish-free. Glucosamine is needed by the body to form tendons, ligaments, cartilage, synovial fluid, mucous membranes, and structures in the eye, blood vessels, and heart valves. Glucosamine stimulates metabolism of cartilage-forming cells and of joint-lubricating synovial cells in the joint capsule. Evidence suggests that glucosamine can reduce pain in people with mild-to-moderate osteoarthritis of the knee.

Several studies have shown 1,500 mg to be an optimal dose of glucosamine hydrochloride.

Grape seed extract is obtained from the seeds of grapes, a by-product of the manufacturing of wine and grape juice. Grape seed extract is rich in flavonoids, the same compounds that give wine and grape juice its health benefits. Grape seed extract flavonoids have a wide variety of benefits, including protection against the oxygen-induced damage and harmful blood clots that can cause heart attacks. Grape seed extract flavonoids can help blood vessels dilate freely, which is why grape seed extract is used for chronic venous insufficiency and to reduce fluid in the legs. Flavonoids can also reduce the risk of allergic reactions and protect against drug and chemical-induced toxicity.

Experts suggest a maintenance dose of 40-80 mg daily of grape seed extract.

Green tea extract is derived from green tea, which has powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The most well known active ingredient in green tea is called EGCG. Research suggests that regular consumption of green tea can help prevent a number of types of cancer. Green tea also seems to improve mental performance and help maintain alertness. Some studies also suggest it can help with weight loss.

Studies show that 50-500 mg of green tea extract per day is optimal.

Gymnema is an Ayurvedic herb that may reduce craving for sugar and help regulate blood sugar. Research suggests that gymnema reduces intestinal absorption of sugar and may stimulate the growth of pancreatic cells that secrete insulin. Taking a gymnema sylvestre extract in combination with insulin or blood-sugar-lowering drugs can further reduce blood sugar in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. When it is placed in the mouth, gymnema alters the taste of sugar, possibly by blocking sugar receptors on the tongue, so some use it to fight sugar cravings.

Studies have shown 400-800 mg daily of gymnema to be effective.

Lutein is a yellow pigment usually found in combination with zeaxanthin. Lutein and zeaxanthin are the two major pigments in the eye’s retina and macula (a spot in the center of the retina responsible for high-acuity vision). They act as antioxidants and as blue light filters, protecting underlying eye tissues from damage from light. Studies suggest that people who consume higher amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin in their diet have a reduced risk of developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a common cause of vision loss in older people. Research shows that taking lutein and zeaxanthin supplements can improve symptoms of AMD such as glare recovery and contrast sensitivity. Studies also suggest a reduced risk of developing severe cataracts that require surgical removal in people consuming higher amounts of lutein zeaxanthin in their diet.

Studies show that 10-20 mg of lutein per day is optimal.

Lycopene is the pigment that gives some fruits and vegetables, such as tomatoes, their red color. Lycopene is also found in watermelons, pink grapefruits, apricots, and pink guavas. Like beta-carotene, lycopene is a carotenoid. However, it has no vitamin A activity. Lycopene is the most potent antioxidant of any carotenoid. Lycopene may reduce cancer risk by preventing oxidative damage to DNA. Studies link high intakes of lycopene with decreased risk for lung, prostate and ovarian cancer.

Experts recommend 5-10 mg of lycopene a day.

Madeglucyl is a patented product derived from the seeds of the edible plant, Eugenia jambolana, long used in Eastern medicine. Madeglucyl has a history of use for the treatment of diabetes. In clinical studies, Madeglucyl helps reduce blood sugar levels without causing low blood sugar.

Madeglucyl has been shown to reduce blood sugar levels at dosages of 1,000-3,000 mg per day.

Magnesium is a mineral involved in more than 300 different reactions in the body. Magnesium is especially important for energy metabolism, blood pressure regulation, normal heartbeat, nerve signaling, and bone metabolism. Processed foods often lack magnesium, making magnesium one of the nutrients lacking in many diets. Studies show magnesium is effective for certain types of heart arrhythmia, asthma, chronic fatigue syndrome, angina, and cluster headaches. Magnesium levels tend to be low in people with poorly-controlled diabetes, and research suggests that supplemental magnesium improves insulin sensitivity.

Experts recommend supplementing with a dosage of magnesium in the range of 250-400 mg per day.

Manganese is an essential trace mineral that helps maintain healthy bones and cartilage. Manganese is also is needed to make a powerful natural antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase, which helps protect the body from chemical and radiation damage. Manganese is included in most multi-vitamin-mineral formulas and in some osteoporosis formulas. Evidence suggests that manganese, along with calcium, zinc, and copper, seems to help reduce spinal bone loss in postmenopausal women.

For osteoporosis, 2-4 mg combined with 1000 mg elemental calcium, 15 mg zinc, and 2 mg copper has been used.

MSM is a naturally-occurring compound found in green plants, grains, and milk. MSM is made from dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and contributes sulfur to some proteins. MSM is primarily used for osteoarthritis, alone or in combination with glucosamine. Research suggests that a MSM-glucosamine combination can reduce some symptoms of osteoarthritis such as pain and swelling, and improve joint function.

Studies have shown 1,500 mg daily of MSM to be optimal.

Niacin is a B vitamin involved in energy production and other important chemical reactions in the body. A niacin deficiency affects the whole body, including the skin, intestines and brain. Niacin deficiencies are uncommon, since niacin is present in many foods. Niacin can be used therapeutically, in large doses, under medical supervision, to raise HDL cholesterol and lower triglycerides.

Experts recommend 15-25 mg of niacin daily.

Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of fatty acids that include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosaptenaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA seems to be especially useful for reducing inflammation in the body, while DHA works more in the brain. Both are used in combination to treat or prevent a variety of health problems, including heart conditions, depression, attention-deficit and bipolar disorders, macular degeneration, dementia, asthma, cancer, hay fever, lung and skin diseases, and autoimmune disorders. ALA is usually present along with EPA and DHA and has its own anti-inflammatory activity.

Experts recommend a daily minimum of 500-800 mg of omega-3 fatty acids.

Pantothenic acid is a B vitamin essential for the body’s use of carbohydrates, proteins and fat, and in the production of hormones, neurotransmitters and epithelial cells (cells lining surface areas). A pantothenic acid deficiency may result in fatigue, headache, numbness and weakness in legs, and heart and intestinal changes. Pantothenic acid is found in most multi-vitamins, but amounts vary greatly.

While the RDA for pantothenic acid is 5 mg, research has shown 25-50 mg to be extremely effective.

Paractin is a patented, standardized extract of Andrographis paniculata, an herb used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine, mostly to treat colds and flu. Paractin is reported to have several active ingredients that help control inflammation by regulating the production of inflammation-producing biochemicals by immune cells. Paractin is thought to be a “natural COX-2 inhibitor” that may provide benefits for people with arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and other inflammatory conditions, without the side effects of drugs.

Research has shown 250 mg daily of Paractin to be effective.

Phytosterols are plant-based compounds similar to cholesterol that can interfere with cholesterol absorption and production in the body. Beta-sitosterol is a phytosterol commonly added to margarines as a cholesterol-reducing aid. Studies show phytosterols significantly reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels (bad cholesterol), but have little or no effect on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels (good cholesterol). Research also suggests that beta-sitosterol may also have some anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune-stimulating properties.

Research has shown 200-800 mg of phytosterols to be effective.

Policosanol is a mixture of waxy alcohols derived from a variety of plant sources including sugar cane and wheat germ oil. Some research suggests that policosanol can lower total cholesterol by 9-29% by inhibiting the liver’s production of cholesterol and by increasing the breakdown of LDL cholesterol. Research also shows that policosanol helps to reduce harmful blood-clotting that can lead to heart attacks.

For high cholesterol 10-20 mg daily of Policosanol has been shown to be effective.

Pomegranate is a unique, deep-red fruit with leathery skin and many small seeds, native to Iran. Pomegranate has been used for millennia to treat a wide variety of diseases. Pomegranate juice contains more polyphenols than red wine, green tea, blueberry, cranberry, or orange juice. Pomegranate polyphenols have antioxidant activity that can be as much as three times higher than red wine or green tea. Research suggests that pomegranate juice may slow the progression of heart disease, reduce blood pressure, help regulate blood sugar, reduce cholesterol, slow the progression of osteoarthritis, and even have some anti-cancer properties.

Research has shown 250 mg of pomegranate fruit extract to be effective.

Pygeum is an evergreen tree found in the mountains of central and southern Africa. Research shows that pygeum contains three types of compounds that effectively relieve the symptoms of prostate enlargement (benign prostatic hyperplasia).

For relief of BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia), 100 mg per day of pygeum has been proven effective.

Riboflavin is an essential B vitamin, required for oxygen use and energy production. Riboflavin is also involved in red blood cell production and helps the body to produce an important natural antioxidant, glutathione. A riboflavin deficiency may result in cracks around the mouth, burning tongue, and skin changes. A riboflavin deficiency can occur in people with long-standing infections such as HIV, liver disease, alcoholism, and cancer. Riboflavin is thought to play a role in cataract prevention. High dietary intake of riboflavin is associated with a reduced risk of cataracts.

Research has shown up to 30 mg per day of riboflavin to be beneficial.

Saw palmetto extract comes from the berries of a small palm tree. Saw palmetto berries contain oils that help reduce the effects of male hormones on prostate tissue and reduce inflammation, and so, improve symptoms of enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia).

Research has shown 400 mg daily of saw palmetto to be effective for BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia).

Selenium is a trace mineral, essential in small amounts for good health. Selenium activates glutathione, an important antioxidant produced in the body. Selenium acts together with vitamin E to provide antioxidant protection. Selenium plays a major role in thyroid hormone production. Research shows selenium can reduce the risk for cancer, especially prostate cancer. It also seems to improve immune function. The Upper Safe Limit for selenium is 400 mcg a day.

For cancer prevention, 200 mcg of selenium per day is recommended.

Soy isoflavones are compounds isolated from soybeans. Soy isoflavones act like weak forms of estrogen. Soy isoflavones are used most often to reduce symptoms of menopause. Research shows that taking concentrated soy isoflavone extracts can reduce symptoms such as hot flashes and night sweats. Studies also suggest that soy isoflavones can reduce bone loss in postmenopausal women.

According to research, 50-150 mg of soy isoflavones per day is recommended to help symptoms of menopause.

Super Citrimax is a patented product containing hydroxycitrate (HCA), derived from the tamarind (Garcinia cambogia), a fruit native to southern India. HCA is similar to the citric acid found in oranges and lemons, but has some unique properties. Research shows that HCA helps to prevent excess calories from being stored as fat. HCA also seems to help control appetite through a number of possible actions. Several studies have demonstrated the safety and effectiveness of HCA.

Studies show 4,500 mg a day in divided doses to be effective for weight loss.

Sytrinol is a patented product made from citrus peels. Sytrinol is a powerful antioxidant that contains phytosterols, which are cholesterol-like compounds found in plants. Studies have shown the heart-healthy benefits of Sytrinol in lowering total and LDL cholesterol levels, without the side effects common to cholesterol-lowering drugs.

A dosage of 150 mg of Sytrinol per day has been found effective for reducing cholesterol levels.

Thiamine is a B vitamin involved in carbohydrate metabolism and the production of energy. A thiamine deficiency can lead to many problems, including degeneration of the nervous system. A lack of thiamine can be caused by alcoholism or a diet high in foods that interfere with thiamine, such as coffee and tea. A simple blood test can test for a thiamine deficiency.

Studies have shown that up to 50 mg of thiamine can safely improve mental alertness.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA is an essential fatty acid found in safflower and other vegetable oils that, studies suggest, can help you selectively lose fat rather than water or muscle as you lose weight. CLA also reduces the body’s ability to absorb fat, because it suppresses an enzyme, lipoprotein lipase, that breaks down fat in the intestines so that it can be absorbed. In weight loss studies, Tonalin, a patented form of CLA, has provided reductions in total body fat mass.

Research has shown 1,000-3,000 mg per day to be effective.

Vinpocetine is a compound derived from a plant in the periwinkle family. Vinpocetine seems to have a number of beneficial effects. Some studies indicate that vinpocetine can enhance blood flow to the brain and improve oxygen and glucose use by brain cells. Vinpocetine seems to increase production of some neurotransmitters. Vinpocetine also decreases the blood’s tendency to form harmful clots. Research suggests that vinpocetine can protect nerve cells and help prevent seizures by protecting against lack of oxygen and by regulating certain biochemical pathways. Vinpocetine also may be modestly effective in treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and other kinds of dementia.

Research has shown 5-20 mg of vinpocetine daily to be effective.

Vitaberry is a patented blend of freeze-dried whole fruit powders and extracts, including wild blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, strawberry, wild bilberry, tart cherry, prune, and grape. One gram of Vitaberry contains the antioxidant protection of more than 10 servings of fruits and vegetables.

Research has shown 10-100 mg of Vitaberry to provide significant antioxidant levels and other benefits.

Carotenoids are a class of more than 600 red, orange, and yellow pigments found in plants. All have antioxidant power, and some, particularly beta-carotene, can also be converted to vitamin A in the body. Studies suggest that diets high in carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables are associated with reduced risk of heart disease and some cancers.

The RDA for vitamin A is 5,000 IU. Stop Aging Now's Multi-Nutrient Formulas split this amount between 2,500 IU of vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene and mixed carotenoids and 2,500 IU in the form of vitamin A palmitate.

Vitamin A plays an important role in vision, the development and maintenance of bone, skin, and mucous membranes, proper immune function, and the orderly growth, maturation, and division of cells. Vitamin A palmitate is a source of preformed vitamin A, also know as retinol, which is found in animal-based foods. (Liver is a good source.) Provitamin A carotenoids, which are found in plant-based foods, are converted to vitamin A as needed by the body.

The RDA for vitamin A is 5,000 IU. Stop Aging Now's Multi-Nutrient Formulas split this amount between 2,500 IU of vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene and mixed carotenoids and 2,500 IU in the form of vitamin A palmitate.

Vitamin B12 is an essential nutrient that helps maintain healthy nerves and red blood cells. Vitamin B12 is also needed to make DNA, the genetic material found in all cells. Dietary vitamin B12 is found primarily in animal-based foods. In older people, a vitamin B12 deficiency is most likely to occur due to problems absorbing the vitamin because of low stomach acid. Symptoms of a vitamin B12 deficiency can include depression, memory loss, numbness and tingling, and trouble with balance and walking. Vitamin B12 is generally considered safe, even in large doses. It is usually used in combination with other B vitamins.

Therapeutic dosages of vitamin B12 are 500 mcg or more a day.

Vitamin B6 is an essential nutrient needed to process proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Vitamin B6 is involved in a wide variety of chemical reactions in the body, including the production of important brain and nerve neurotransmitters. Vitamin B6 helps protect the heart and blood vessels by working with folic acid and vitamin B12 to reduce blood levels of toxic homocysteine. Vitamin B6 is found to be effective in helping to prevent lung cancer, oxalate-type kidney stones, and premenstrual syndrome.

Therapeutic dosages of vitamin B6 range from 10-200 mg a day.

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in many of the body's important metabolic processes. Vitamin C is probably best known for its role as an antioxidant and in proper immune function. A vitamin C deficiency leads to poor immunity, loose teeth, hemorrhaging in the skin and muscles, and eventually, death. Vitamin C deficiencies are not common, but can be overlooked.

Therapeutic dosages range widely, from 200-2,000 mg per day.

Vitamin D is an essential nutrient involved in bone metabolism and calcium use throughout the body. A vitamin D deficiency leads to bone loss, muscle weakness, and loss of balance. Supplemental vitamin D can help prevent falls and fractures in older people. Vitamin D also benefits some forms of psoriasis, and some disorders associated with calcium deficiency. Vitamin D deficiencies are more common than previously thought, especially in older people.

New research suggests 1,000 IU per day of Vitamin D may be optimal. Cholecalciferol, also known as vitamin D3, is the superior supplemental form.

Vitamin E is an essential nutrient and potent antioxidant found primarily in vegetable oils and nuts and seeds. There are 8 different forms of natural vitamin E. Four are tocopherol forms: alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-, and four are tocotrienol forms. Most of the vitamin E in foods is gamma-tocopherol. Research suggests supplemental vitamin E can help with macular degeneration, Alzheimer's disease and dementia, anemia associated with kidney dialysis, some types of cancer and chemotherapy-related toxicity, decreased strength and physical performance in older adults, and diabetes and neuropathy.

The RDA for vitamin E is 15 mg/day (22.5 IU of alpha-tocopherol). Amounts used therapeutically range from 200-1,000 IU or more.

Zeaxanthin is a yellow pigment usually found in combination with lutein. It is lutein's mirror-image. Lutein and zeaxanthin are the two major pigments in the eye’s retina and macula (a spot in the center of the retina responsible for high-acuity vision). They act as antioxidants and as blue light filters, protecting underlying eye tissues from damage from light. People who consume higher amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin have a reduced risk of developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a common cause of vision loss in older people. Research suggests that taking lutein and zeaxanthin supplements improves symptoms of AMD such as glare recovery and contrast sensitivity. Studies also suggest a reduced risk of developing severe cataracts that require surgical removal in people consuming higher amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin.

To reduce the risk of macular degeneration and cataracts, experts suggest 2-5 mg daily of zeaxanthin.

Zinc is an essential trace mineral involved in many biological processes in the body, including the manufacture of genetic materials and proteins. Zinc plays an important role in immune function, wound healing, taste and smell, thyroid function, and insulin action. Symptoms of a zinc deficiency include mental lethargy, lack of appetite, poor sense of smell and taste, and decreased thyroid function. Zinc deficiencies are rare in the US, however, alcoholism and chronic kidney disease can create a zinc deficiency. Zinc works closely with vitamin A. Zinc monomethionine is a highly-absorbable form of zinc.

For men, 11 mg of zinc per day is considered adequate. For women, 8 mg per day may be appropriate. Therapeutic dosages range from 20-50 mg per day.

Tocotrienols are a form of vitamin E. The vitamin E family contains four natural tocopherols and four natural tocotrienols, alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-tocotrienol. While tocopherols are generally concentrated in vegetable oils, tocotrienols tend to be concentrated in cereal grains such as rice, oats, and barley. Some research suggests that the fat-soluable molecular structure of tocotrienols may make them the more effective antioxidants of the vitamin E family.

Research has shown 10-20 mg of tocotrienols to be effective.

Brown rice bran is the outer layer of the rice grain, which is removed to create white rice. Brown rice bran contains high levels of several antioxidants, including vitamin E. Recent studies have suggested that brown rice bran can lower elevated blood pressure and levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol.

Quercetin is one of the flavonoids, water-soluable plant pigments commonly known for their antioxidant activity. Studies have shown that quercetin is consistently the most active of the flavonoids, and is found in high concentrations in many medicinal plants. Research suggests that quercetin may be particularly useful in the prevention of cancer. Quercetin has been used therapeutically for a wide range of allergic and inflammatory conditions, including respiratory conditions such as asthma and bronchitis.

Experts recommend 200–500 mg of quercetin taken 2-3 times per day.

Resveratrol is an antioxidant present in a wide variety of plants. Wine and grape juice are among the best dietary sources of resveratrol. Red wine contains much greater amounts of resveratrol than does white wine, since resveratrol is concentrated in the grape skin and the manufacturing process of red wine includes prolonged contact with grape skins.

Research has shown 200–600 mg of resveratrol per day to be effective.

Soy lecithin is a natural fat-soluble substance derived from soybeans. Lecithin is also present in high concentrations in meat, egg yolks, and bee pollen. It is used commercially as an emulsifier of fats, which actually parallels it's action within the body. Lecithin contains phosphatidylcholine, which is used by the liver in its metabolism of fats.

Lecithin is often taken in a dosages of up to 1,200 mg twice daily.

Tocopherols are a form of vitamin E. The vitamin E family contains four natural tocotrienols and four natural tocopherols, d-alpha, beta, delta and gamma-tocopherol. Tocopherols are fat-soluble antioxidants that are generally concentrated in vegetable oils.

Amounts used therapeutically range from 200-1,000 IU or more.

Astaxanthin is a reddish carotenoid that is most commonly known for its high antioxidant activity. Research has indicated that due to astaxanthin’s high antioxidant activity, it may be beneficial for a number of different health concerns. Particularly, it has shown promising implications for supporting cardiovascular and immune health. Astaxanthin may also provide support for inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases.

Experts recommend taking .5 to 2mg per day.